Why use smart cards

Smart Cards have been increasing in popularity in the last few years. They are small plastic cards the size of a credit card, but with one difference. Instead of just having embossed lettering and a magnetic strip to contain information, they also have a computer chip. This chip is an Integrated Circuit (IC) that can hold vast amounts of information and provide users with multiple applications.

In the coming years more and more Smart Cards will be in use, and companies involved with Smart Card development, Smart Card software, and Smart Card deployment will have plenty of work to do. Industrial and financial usage will be at the forefront, but private usage will also be important. Smart Cards will replace keys, documents, human actions, cash, and sometimes even palmtops and laptops. In the next ten years individuals will begin collecting Smart Cards that replace, or simplify, passwords and keys. Then, the following decade will see a decrease in the number of Smart Cards as one card begins to handle more and more applications. The same card will be used as an ID card, drivers license, key to the house and office, access to home entertainment, a wallet, and much much more.

Computer chips of today are like miniature cities. Instead of holding one or two transistors as they did in the 1960s, they now can hold over seven million. Instead of being two dimensional, they are now three dimensional with capacitors, resistors, transistors, and co-processors. Their speed has increased tremendously as their size has decreased. Measuring in at only 3 atoms thick, current silicon wafers pack a tremendous amount of information into a square smaller than the average American postage stamp.

As an information manager in any industry today, or as a common consumer or computer user, you will need to be aware of the today's technology and trends involving Smart Cards. This paper will analyze the trends in microprocessor power over the last 30 years, look at the past, present and future usage of Smart Cards, and lay out the Smart Card technology that business leaders and IT professionals will have to know to stay competitive in a rapidly changing global environment.

What are Smart Cards?

Smart Cards are essentially credit cards with computer chips on them. More specifically they are plastic cards with one silicon chip, approximately ¼ inch square, that can accomplish one or more functions. Currently the most common usage of Smart Cards is with pay telephones. In this arena, Smart Cards dominate. For decades, however, Europeans have been using Smart Cards just as checks are used in the United States, to purchase everyday items with them by debiting their bank accounts. Other uses include decrypting satellite television programming, unlocking doors, cash cards for purchases, and as university identification.

They are important today because as the costs of powerful integrated circuits continues to drop (with their size) people are realizing that plastic cards can do a lot more for them than simply exchange goods for credit. Whereas a magnetic strip can only hold 1000 bits of information, a card with a computer chip can hold upwards of 32 KB of information. That number will continue to increase in the coming years.

Smart Card History

Before discussing the history of the Smart Card, it should be mentioned that the first plastic cards came into use in the early 1950s in the United States. "The low price of the synthetic material PVC (polyvinyl chloride) allowed robust, long-lasting cards to be produced" (Rankl, 2000). Paper and cardboard cards had been previously used, which couldn't withstand the stresses of use and weather. The Diners Club in 1950 produced the first all-plastic payment card for general use. It became a status symbol because it was intended for an exclusive group of people who could use their 'good name' instead of cash to make purchases. (Rankl, 2000) Once Visa and MasterCard came into being, plastic cards for payment became common very quickly, first in the US, then Europe, and then the rest of the world.

In the 1970s there were several extreme improvements in the semiconductor industry. This paved the way for the development of PCs and Smart Cards. Why create Smart Cards, or make any improvements in credit cards at all? The two most important answers are fraud and functionality. As credit cards increased in popularity, they also increased in fraudulent use. This has been a serious problem for several decades, and is the main reason people refuse to use the Internet to make purchases. As to functionality, the credit card initially required the merchant to type the 16 digit number into a terminal. Later magnetic strips were added, allowing sales clerks to simply swipe the cards. Still, paper receipts were needed for signature verification. Also, with every transaction there is still the need to telephonically verify the credit card's legitimacy. So, credit cards are not entirely secure and they are not paperless.

The first patent related to Smart Cards was requested by two German inventors, Jurgen Dethloff and Helmut Grotrupp in 1968 (Rankl, 2000). They patented the idea of incorporating an integrated circuit into an identification card. In 1974, Roland Moreno registered his Smart Card patents in France. (Rankl, 2000). By that time the semiconductor industry was able to supply the necessary integrated circuits at reasonable prices. For the next ten years a number of technical difficulties were resolved with Smart Cards. Then, in 1984 the French postal and telecommunications services (PTT) carried out a successful field trial with telephone cards (Rankl, 2000). It was a good thing for the Smart Card industry that its first real breakthrough was in an area not already on the market. This allowed the new technology to be fully exploited, as it didn't have to conform to an earlier technological standard.

In the mid to late 70's it was apparent to some that Smart Cards would one day hold an important place in history. "The Smart Card business will one day be as important as the computer business is today." (The director of the Department of Patents at the French computer firm Honeywell Bull SA in 1978.) (Rankl, 2000)

The first French phone cards used EPROM chips while the first German phone cards used EEPROM chips. "By 1986, several million 'smart' telephone cards were in circulation in France alone. Today there are such telephone cards in over 50 countries.

Bank cards are more complex, because of their need for cryptography. Cryptography is "The art or process of writing in or deciphering secret code" (American Heritage, 1985). In the 1960s this art became a science through the expansion of electronic data processing. Using mathematical algorithms, computer engineers could actually calculate the strength of security mechanisms in computer programs. This technology was essential to the development of debit cards, and in 1984 the French were the first to bring the bank card into daily use. By 1994 all French bank cards included chips. Austria took a further step in 1996 when it deployed a national electronic purse with optional applications.

In 1994 the US joined Europe in planning for future Smart Card technology. Europay, MasterCard, and Visa worked out the specifications for credit cards incorporating microchips. This guaranteed mutual compatibility, and was "an important milestone for the future worldwide use of Smart Cards for financial transactions" (Rankl, 2000). It is called the EMV specification, an acronym formed by the using the first letters of each of the three companies involved.

Besides the bank card and the "upgraded" credit card is the electronic purse. This is simply a Smart Card with a certain amount of money loaded onto it. This allows for making small purchases without paper cash, and is one of the large drawing points of Smart Cards. Visa used an electronic purse at the 1996 Olympic Summer Games in Atlanta. The first electronic purse was used in Denmark in 1992. This is an area where Smart Card technology can be exploited much further than it has been, and this will require national and international standards. Currently, electronic purses are closed systems. They can only be used within certain regions and/or for certain vendors.

Application Areas

The Two Categories

The two categories of Smart Cards are memory cards and microprocessor cards. Memory cards are used for such applications as telephone cards. The way they work is that with each use the amount of money available is decremented. If magnetic-strip cards had been used, it would have been very easy to re-write the original amount back onto the card. This cannot happen with memory cards because once a memory location has been written to, it cannot be erased. These cards, therefore, can only be used once, but are good as telephone cards and temporary electronic purses for particular uses.

The second category of Smart Card is much more useful. Microprocessor cards began their debut with French bank cards. Then, after a reduction in the cost of Smart Cards in the early 1990s due to mass production, Smart Cards became an indispensable requirement in the European cellular phone. They paved the way for cellular technology to sweep across the continent. The Smart Card did two things for cell phones: Increased the level of achievable security, and provided many more marketing options for the sale of the services. Microprocessor Smart Cards have unlimited potential as identification cards, access control cards, complex and secure electronic purses, electronic signatures, and as multi-functional cards (Rankl, 2000).

Government usage

Since the US government is transitioning and will transition many functions from paper based to "paperless," maximizing the use of the Internet and intranets, Smart Cards are an extremely attractive option. Security is paramount in the government, but security is always hard. The Smart Card is a way to greatly increase security while simultaneously decreasing its difficulty. This is because of the encryption ability of the integrated circuits.

The Smart Card is also an excellent option for small communities such as campuses and Army posts. The US Military Academy and the Air Force Academy recently contracted for System Resources Cooperative (SRC) to begin a phased project of outfitting both cadet populations with multi-functional ID Cards. "In time, cadets will be able to borrow a library book, receive a uniform item, or purchase a can of soda-all in a paperless, cashless, environment using only the cadet Card" (SRC, 2000). Satellite Smart Card readers will be scattered throughout the campuses that will allow cadets to update and access their cards. The cards will function as an ID card, and may also be used to track attendance at formations and classes. As the young leaders of tomorrow at these two military academies experience the time and cost savings of using Smart Cards, they will surely expect to see their use increase rather than decrease throughout their military careers. I believe their expectations will be fulfilled.

Figure 1. An example University Smart Card.

Other Uses

The number of different uses out there for Smart Cards is nearly endless. The limit is only man's imagination. It is possible to have a digital driver's license that can be checked and verified without ever removing it from your pocket. Another option is to have a personalized computing card that remembers your precise computing preferences and loads the desktop, favorite web sites, MS Word font and set up defaults automatically onto every computer you log into. Cards might be used to contain books, and you might carry a pocket sized Smart Card reader with video display to read your favorite books. Cards may also contain health information, to be read and updated every time a person is seen by a doctor. Contactless Smart Cards will be used at toll booths, in mass transit, and at ski lifts. Contact cards will be in TV set-top boxes to control what can and cannot be viewed. Smart Cards might store pictures and personnel records. They will likely be used instead of passports. They will accompany shipments, such as cars and parts, to give disposition or further delivery instructions. They will serve as address books and organizers. The potential of having numerous computers in one's wallet that all provide extremely powerful applications automatically has only begun to be tapped into.

Standardization

Before the world of Smart Cards can truly be opened up, as with other computing technologies, standards must be in place. In fact, many standards are already in place. Two technical committees are concerned with the international standardization of Smart Cards: ISO TC68/SC6 and ISO/IEC JTC1/SC17. These two committees have been working on Smart Card standards for over fifteen years. "Most of the important fundamental ISO standards for Smart Cards are now complete. They form the basis for further, more application-oriented standards, which are currently being prepared by ISO and the CEN (Rankl, 2000).

The Smart Card standards have all been built upon the previous standards for identification cards. These include the ISO series 7810, 7811, 7812, and 7813. They define the characteristics that are known as the "ID-1" format. Since Smart Cards are able to have embossed lettering (raised lettering allowing for carbon paper print outs to be made of credit card information) the durability of the packaging of the silicon portion of the card must be extremely high.

Embossed, Magnetic, & Smart

The embossing mentioned above is done by simple, inexpensive devices, and was once the only way credit card information could be automatically transmitted. ISO 7811 includes detailed descriptions on the embossed lettering including the type of font, precise size, and exact location on the card. The fact that this standard was in place allowed for the widest proliferation of this technology, even in developing countries. For this method of card reading, no electricity or telephone connections are needed.

Magnetic-strip cards brought the traditional embossed credit card to a new level. By swiping the card passed a read head all of the critical payment information could be read electronically, requiring no paper in the process. The major problem with the magnetic strip is the ease of writing new information to it. A thief can acquire valid credit card information and write it into a magnetic strip and use it wherever proper identification procedures are not enforced. Although magnetic strip manufacturers have come up with ways to make the strips more secure, these ways are too costly to catch on internationally.

Smart Cards are superior to the above two types of ID-1 cards. Not only do they require no paper, but they are also extremely secure and able to hold much more data. More than 32 KB of data can be held on one chip. This number will continue to multiply in the coming years. As to their security, they have three components: the physical card, the integrated circuit, and the operating system. All three of these work together to secure the data being transferred. In addition to these benefits, the life of a smart card is longer than a magnetic-strip card, which can only last for about 2 years. "The fundamental characteristics and functions of Smart Cards are laid down in the ISO 7816 series of standards" (Rankl, 2000).

The Makings of a Smart Card

According to the ISO standard, a Smart Card is 85.6 mm by 54 mm and .76 mm thick with an embedded microcontroller. This size follows the conventions of ID-1. The card intentionally has some flexibility, is small enough to easily fit in a wallet, and yet not so small that it is easily lost. There are two other Smart Card sizes. The smallest is suitable for a cellular phone, and is called the ID-000. The third size is in between, and is called the ID-00. Oftentimes, manufacturers make only ID-1 cards. They then draw the outline of the ID-000 or ID-00 and punch out the appropriate sized card for the function it will perform. This practice is usually done for cellular telephone cards.

A number of physical security mechanisms are commonly used on Smart Cards. One of the more intriguing is the hologram. Holograms are a form of security because only a few companies in the entire world actually produce them, and they are not freely available (Rankl, 2000). The Smart Card holograms of today are embossed holograms. After producing a master embossing stamp with the necessary microstructures, daughter stamps are prepared by using electroplating processes. The daughter stamps are then placed on the plastic card and coated with vaporized aluminum. This coating is what produces the well-known white-light reflection holograms. The only way to remove the hologram is to destroy it. This makes for an obvious additional layer of security. Another equally intriguing feature is the kinegram, a 3-D picture. These are made in the same way as holograms, and have images that change abruptly when the user changes the angle of the card. They are used on the German Eurocheque (EC) card.

An aspect of Smart Cards that some universities may see in the near future is the thermochrome (TC) display. This kind of display can be changed from time to time, giving the card face a different set of words and a different picture. It works in the following manner as quoted from The Smart Card Handbook: Second Edition:

A printing head with a resolution of 200 or 300 dpi, such as is used in thermal-transfer and dye-sublimation printers, heats individual points that are to be blackened on the thermochrome strip. This is a temperature sensitive strip, 10-15 micrometers thick, that is laminated to the card. It darkens at each point that is heated to 120 degrees Celsius. However, this darkening can be changed back to a nearly transparent state by heating the entire strip, which amounts to erasing the strip.

The major problem with this technique is that it can be used illegally for unauthorized changes to cards. It also requires special readers with built-in thermochrome printers, but it is the only way to economically have time-varying information on Smart Cards.

The body of the card itself has to be quite rugged. Today's Smart Card has eight different functional elements. The classification scheme for the card elements is shown in Figure 1. The minimum standards for the toughness of the card are found in ISO standards 7810, 7813 and 7816. These standards include the following areas, according to The Smart Card Handbook: Second Edition:

· ultraviolet radiation

· X-ray radiation

· the card's surface profile

· mechanical robustness of the card and contacts

· electromagnetic susceptibility

· electrostatic discharges

· temperature resistance

Figure 2 (Taken from The Smart Card Handbook: Second Edition)

Most cards are made out of PVC (polyvinyl chloride). It's inexpensive, but bad for the environment. Vinyl chloride is a carcinogen. When it is burned, hydrochloric acid is released. Because of these facts, less cards are being made with PVC every year. The substitutes, however, have to measure up to the same tests of quality as far as flexibility, temperature tolerances and so on. ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) is one of them. This can withstand high temperatures, can be processed in sheet form, and by injection molding (not possible with PVC). It is limited in its acceptance of color. Benzene is a known carcinogen, but other than that it has no known environmental disadvantages. ABS is used in cellular telephone cards. Other PVC substitutes are PC (polycarbonate) and PET (polyethylene terephthalate). PC is used in making compact discs, and has two environmentally unsafe ingredients. It also is expensive and requires high temperatures for adding holograms and magnetic strips. PET is also known as polyester and in one of its forms is difficult to laminate. Other materials are being tested all the time, including one test involving 600 Birchwood Smart Cards. 90% of the test users had no problems with them, but they did not meet the requirements of ISO for flexibility.

Chip Modules

Since the most important part of a Smart Card is the chip, the chip module, or vehicle that encloses the chip and connects it to the plastic card is very important. Two things must be provided for:

1) Protection from the surroundings.

2) Electrical contacts with the outside.

The four most important module types that did these two things are listed in Figure 3.

TAB

chip-on-flex

leadframe

chip-on-surface

Figure 3 (From The Smart Card Handbook: Second Edition)

To connect the chip to the five contact elements on the outside of the module, two methods are used. One is to connect them by thin gold wires. The other is to physically bond the module to the chip (die bonding.)

TAB modules are not used much anymore, but this was the primary way in the early 1990s. Chip-on-flex modules are the most widely used types today. The way this works is a portion of the finished plastic card is milled away. Then, the carrier materiel, made of "flexible circuit board made from fiberglass-reinforced epoxy resin" (Rankl, 2000) has holes punched in it to receive the wire bonds. The chip is placed into the flexible circuit. The chip contacts are connected by bonding wires to the rear surfaces of the contact areas, and the chip and bonding wires are encapsulated with a blob of plastic (Rankl, 2000).

The lead-frame modules are cheaper to produce and use. They are also simpler. The contact surfaces of the module are held together by a plastic body. The chips are placed on this and connected to the leads with wire bonding. After this the chip is covered by black epoxy resin.

The chip-on-surface process is without a module. It can be used for memory chips only, because they are small enough. A laser removes the materiel where the chip will be placed. The chip is glued in, and a conductive silver paste is silk-screened onto the surface of the chip and onto the card body, forming contact surfaces. Then, "the chip and the leads to the contact areas are covered with a non-conductive lacquer" (Rankl, 2000).

Electrical Issues

The basic electrical specifications for the microcontrollers meet the requirements laid out in GSM 11.11, which is for cellular-phone Smart Cards. This is because so many different manufacturers had to come on line with one way to connect to the telephone Smart Cards being produced, and such large volumes of them were produced.

Smart Cards have eight electrical contacts. Of these eight, three are not presently used for anything. One of these three may one day be used to allow for full duplex transmission. The contacts in use are for supply voltage, reset input, clock input, grounding, and serial communications. The supply voltage is 5 volts (+/- 10%). Someday there will be a range of between 3 and 5 volts because cellular phones are using 3 volts for everything except the Smart Card.

The most interesting aspect of Smart Card electricity is the contactless card. These cards can transfer data and energy over short distances with no electrical lead contacts. Four things need to happen with all contactless actions (Rankl, 2000):

· energy transfer for supplying power to the integrated circuit

· transmission of the clock signal

· data transfer to the Smart Card

· data transfer from the Smart Card

Since there are no batteries thin enough, and since batteries are poisonous, all energy used must be transferred using magnetic fields. For writing data to the card, it needs to be closer to the field because this requires more power. The distances needed range from several millimeters to one meter. Data transfer occurs using digital modulation techniques.

Microcontrollers

The microcontroller of the Smart Card (the chip) is different from typical PC microcontrollers. Its primary components include the CPU, the address/data bus and the memory, including RAM, ROM, and EEPROM. These chips are different from normal chips because all of the functional elements of an actual computer have to be on them, but some typical chip elements are not necessary for Smart Cards. Also, they need to be as small as possible due to the potential to crack when bent. As to the state of the art, the "latest and greatest" chips are never used. 200,000 transistors is typical even though chips exist with 9 million. This is because the chips must be proven reliable before they can be used on a Smart Card. The size is also a consideration.

The processors are CISC and have 8 bit memory bus for between 6 and 30 KB of memory. Hitachi puts out a 16 bit RISC processor, however. RAM and EEPROM are limited as much as possible due to their size per bit. Flash EEPROM and FRAM (ferroelectric random-access memory) may be used in the future. 256-byte RAM is considered large because so much more EEPROM or ROM can be put in the same space. The technical difficulties of putting all three types of memory on one chip include a considerable number of exposure masks. Much consideration is given to the breakdown of RAM, EEPROM, and ROM to maximize the efficiency of each. Another important fact is that the space required for a certain amount of data stored on the ROM of a Smart Card microcontroller is much more than that required for the same amount of memory on a hard disk or a CD-ROM.

Current Monetary Usage

Because credit is such an important factor in US economics, Smart Cards are (not surprisingly) making inroads through that venue. American Express and Visa are working to increase Smart Card usage while simultaneously increasing customer satisfaction. American Express has come up with a "Blue" card that performs several key functions. MasterCard and Visa are also both producing credit cards that are "much more than a credit card."

One monetary use that is growing in popularity is the electronic purse. Using only a magnetic strip, debit cards can be charged at recharging stations throughout a campus or manufacturing plant. They can then be used instead of cash for small money transactions such as at a copy machine, vending machine or cafeteria. For these types of cards, no pin is needed. Often such cards are also used as the company ID card. They truly point the way toward a cashless society as users see the convenience of simply sliding a card into a machine and getting exactly what they want without fussing with cash.

The Smart Market

The world's # 1 Smart Card manufacturer is Gemplus, a France based company. For years they have enjoyed their position and faced very little real competition; twenty five years in fact (Matlock, 2000). Their dominance primarily revolves around the European market. In 1999 the US only made up 2% of all Smart Card purchases in the world while "Europe accounted for 60%" (Matlock, 2000). That is changing. According to the research firm Dataquest, "world sales will climb from $2.4 billion this year to $8.1 billion by 2004. And much of that growth will come from the laggard U.S. market" (BW1). So, Gemplus has an opportunity to cash in big, and so do all other up and coming Smart Card manufacturers. Although they aren't as impressive outwardly as biometrics, the smart money is on Smart Cards.

The Internet is the driving force behind this sudden interest in 30-year-old technology. US web surfers continue to worry about using credit cards for online purchases. Amex has already issued $2 million of its Blue cards, all of which come with a PC Smart Card reader. At least for these web-surfers, Internet purchases can now be done conveniently, frequently, and without worry. The vendor never sees a credit card number or an expiration date. The vendor only sees a code that authorizes the sale. That's all the vendor needs to see.

Microsoft is also focusing on the smart money of Smart Cards. Windows 2000 provides for user friendly use of Smart Card readers, and MS Windows for Smart Cards is already in use. An "operating system" for Smart Cards has a funny ring to it, but a Smart Card is a computer. It is a computer on a card that "knows" how much money you have in your account, and can "remember" your anniversary, or your favorite flavor of pizza. Bill Gates recently spoke at a conference on Smart Cards. He implored business leaders to focus on Smart Cards and promote their manufacture and use. (McCarthy, 2000)

The trend in computer technology is towards having the computer do more, and having the person do (and remember) less and less. Everyone today is complaining about how many passwords they must remember. Sometimes it seems as if every worthwhile web site requires a password, as well as the filling out of pages of other personal information. As a result, many web surfers use the same password over and over again. Smart Cards with Smart Card readers will alleviate much of that burden and insecurity. Personal information can be revealed to whomever the user chooses to reveal it to, and can be concealed from all others. It needn't be typed over and over again, which will save quite a bit of time, like computers are supposed to do. As more and more individuals and businesses begin to see this reality, Smart Cards will flourish, despite their costs. Therefore, the smart money is surely with this market today.

Hardware Technology

What is a Chip?

In the early 1960's, combining several components into one piece of solid-state material called an integrated circuit became a reality. This was called small-scale integration (SSI). Up to 12 gates (transistors) were fit into a piece of square material that was about as wide as a pencil lead. Into the late 1960's the number of transistors increased to over 1,000 on a single chip. First, by using medium-scale integration (MSI), system building blocks were designed. Then complete subsystems ushered the computer world into the age of large-scale integration (LSI). The LSI integration pace, which was launched by the handheld calculator with all of its circuitry on one chip (except the keyboard and the display), continued through the 1970's. All the circuitry for complete microcomputers were then found on a single chip. This was very large-scale integration, VLSI.

In the early 1960's, when SSI integrated circuits were first manufactured, there were 10 gates in a package. The cost of the package was $10 and the cost per gate equaled $1. With VLSI circuits having 50,000 transistors which could sell for $50 when first manufactured, the gate cost is 0.1 cent, "resulting in a cost reduction of 1000 times over the SSI circuit" (Cannon, 1984).

How is a Chip Made?

A silicon chip or integrated circuit (IC) is made using several high tech processes on a wafer of silicon. First, a cylinder of silicon is sliced into very thin wafers. Then the wafers are polished on one side. The polished side is then put through a nine-step process of oxidation, photolithography, diffusion, and metallization. These steps form the many MOS (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) transistors on and in the silicon slice. (Cannon, 1984). The steps are detailed below:

1) Oxidation. Silcon dioxide (glass) is grown on the silicon through a furnace process. This puts a thin layer of glass on top of the silicon. The silicon beneath is of "P type."

2) Photolithography. A layer of liquid photoresistant plastic is added to the wafer. Then, a photo mask is suspended above the wafer with "clear parts that pass light and dark parts that block the light" (Cannon, 1984). Where the light is allowed to go through, the plastic "turns into a gooey layer of photoresist (Intel, 2000). Where it is not, the plastic is then washed away, taking the dioxide layer with it.

3) Diffusion. The areas of silicon no longer protected by an oxide layer are then diffused with N-Type atoms passed over the slice in a phosphorus gas while the wafer is in a 1200 degrees Celsius furnace (Cannon, 1984). This makes N-type 'source' and 'drain' areas in the P-type silicon. The electricity will later flow through these source and drain areas.

4) Oxidation. This step is repeated so the entire wafer is once again covered with glass.

5) Photolithography. Particular portions of the dioxide layer are removed using photolithography a second time. This reveals discrete parts where the aluminum (to be added) will touch the silicon.

6) Metallization. A thin metal layer is placed over the entire wafer so that transistors, diodes and resistors can be connected electrically.

7) Photolithography. This process is repeated, this time removing discrete portions of the metal that will not be needed.

8) Layering. The wafer is then covered by another silicon layer. Actually another layer of silicon dioxide is grown on top of the first layer. "Then, a layer of polysilicon and another layer of photoresist are applied" (Intel 7). Following this, ultra violet light is again used with a mask to wash away precise portions of the silicon dioxide, and prepare for more metallization.

9) Separation. The circular wafer is cut into square pieces, packaged, and tested.

Special Chip

Smart Cards can be divided up into two categories, contact and contactless. Motorola has come out with a Card called the M-Smart Mercury MM4000L. It "uses an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) optimized for contactless Smart Cards" (Newsbytes, 2000). It provides the user with 1 KB of EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read only memory.

Physical Security

Electronic security is one of the main reasons for deploying Smart Cards, but physical security is also a popular consideration. Smart Cards can replace keys. This has been proven at universities, military bases, and in many hotels and motels. The US Department of Defense is in the process of testing and deploying a DOD wide Smart Card that is multi-purpose. It will contain an actual photo, standard written personnel information, a chip, a magnetic stripe, and two bar codes. The purpose of the magnetic strip is physical security. The magnetic strip will be used for entering both soldier barracks and work areas.

One potential problem with the security aspects of Smart Cards is the Smart Cards themselves. A card as powerful as the one the DOD intends to deploy will be an attractive target to criminals. Since the chip on this card will be used for PKI and other computer related uses, it will have to be placed in a computer, or at least in a Smart-Card reader attached to a computer. In the fast paced environment of the US military, a soldier is extremely likely to forget about the card in a rush to obey his next order in a "high speed" fashion. This will result in a security violation. However, unlike simply leaving a set of keys on the table, that give a thief access to one home and one car (if he can figure out who's keys it is), leaving a Smart Card unattended will provide a wide range of opportunities for the thief. In addition to having access to a soldier's living and working areas, the Smart-Card thief will be able to gain access to the Internet, potentially "secure" data files, and volumes of personal information that could lead to other Smart Card thefts or breeches in national security.

As the military locks up more and more items, physical security becomes more challenging. One of the biggest challenges is the maintenance and management of so many physical keys. The keys themselves must be locked up, and the key to the keys must be kept on someone's person. With Smart Cards, I expect that much of the burden previously withstood by the key control custodian or key manager will be transferred to the individual. Rather than looking for an open key box, the cunning thief will focus on the individual Smart Card left unwittingly in a computer. As Smart Cards become more powerful and multi-functional, they will have to become carefully guarded items, or physical security will get worse rather than improve.

Sources of Smart Card Information

As an increasingly popular tool and technology, Smart Cards enjoy quite a bit of limelight today. A number of books, several magazines, and many web-sites are devoted to Smart Card usage, and the understanding of this new technology. A few of the books are included in the following list, which is available online at www.smartcardcentral.com/books.

Smart Card Handbook: Putting the World at Your Fingertips
By: L. Robert Tolley Diane L. Johnson

21st Century Money, Banking & Commerce
by Thomas Vartanian, Robert Ledig & Lynn Bruneau

Smart Card Security and Applications
By Mike Hendry

Smart Card Developers Kit
By Scott Guthery and Timothy Jurgensen

Smart Cards: A Guide to Building and Managing Smart Card Applications
By J. Thomas Monk and Henry N. Dreifus

Smart Cards: Seizing Strategic Business Opportunities
By Catherine Allen

Smart Cards
By Jose Luis Zoreda, Jose Manuel Oton

Digital Cash
By Peter Wayner

Smart Card Handbook
By W. Rankl & W. Effing

Smart Cards: The Global Information Passport
By Jack Kaplan

Applied Cryptography
By Bruce Schneier

Java Cryptography
By Jonathan B. Knudsen

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